Oduro, George K.T., University of Cambridge; “Distributed leadership’ in schools: what English headteachers say about the ‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors”; Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Manchester, 16–18 September 2004; http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003673.htm

In this article, Oduro describes his view of distributed leadership as a shift from an heroic to post-heroic model of leadership. He describes distributed leadership conceptually; “it is not something "done" by an individual "to" others, or a set of individual actions through which people contribute to a group or organization. Distributed leadership is a group activity that works through and within relationships, rather than individual action. It emerges from a variety of sources depending on the issue and who has the relevant expertise or creativity.” He also suggests that “this approach argues a less formalized model of leadership (where leadership responsibility is dissociated from the organizational hierarchy) … individuals at all levels in the organization and in all roles (not simply those with an overt management dimension) can exert leadership influence over their colleagues and thus influence the overall direction of the organization.” Like Spillane (2005), Oduro argues that distributed leadership is not the same as but is related to ‘dispersed leadership’, ‘collaborative leadership’, ‘democratic leadership’, and ‘shared leadership’, each of which he defines in his paper.

Spillane, James P.; “Distributed Leadership”; The Educational Forum; Winter 2005;
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4013/is_200501/ai_n9473825

In this article Spillane indicates that distributed leadership is often used interchangeably with "shared leadership," "team leadership," and "democratic leadership." He states that the term is used by others to indicate that school leadership involves multiple leaders, that distributed leadership is an organizational quality, rather than an individual attribute, and that it is a way of thinking about the practice of school leadership. However, Spillane argues that these synonyms do not equate to his definition and that these other definitions are too limited in scope.

He sees distributed leadership as a “system of practice comprised of a collection of interacting components: leaders, followers, and situation. These interacting components must be understood together because the system is more than the sum of the component parts or practices.” He uses examples from The Distributed Leadership Study (School of Education and Social Policy at Northwestern University 2004) to illustrate his understanding of distributed leadership.

See also Spillane James P., Institute for Policy Research School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University; “Distributed Leadership: What’s All the Hoopla?”; 2004; http://hub.mspnet.org/media/data/Spillane_DistribLead.pdf?media_000000000926.pdf.

Wright, Lisa L.; University of Alberta; “Merits and Limitations of Distributed Leadership: Experiences and Understandings of School Principals”; Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, Issue #69, February 7, 2008. © by CJEAP and the author(s). http://www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/articles/wright.html

Wright states that the “concept of distributed leadership is relatively new, lacks a widely-accepted definition, and has a limited empirical research base.” However, she discusses the merits and limitations of the concept using Spillane’s (2006) definition for distributed leadership. According to Wright, Spillane defines distributed leadership as an alternative way of thinking about leadership; where leadership practice involves the promotion of multiple and distributed sources of leadership that extend over complex social and situational contexts. Wright states that this form of leadership is a “shared, social influence process whereby intentional influence is exerted by leaders and followers over other people to structure activities and relationships in a group or organization” and is premised on people leading when and where they have expertise. She suggests it involves constructivist conversations, reflective thinking, collaborative planning and problem solving to address the perennial problems of education.

Bennet, L., et al; Distributed Leadership: Summary Report; National College for School Leadership; Spring 2003; http://www.ncsl.org.uk/media-7b5-79-distributed-leadership-literature-review-summary.pdf

The authors of this report examine the meaning of distributed leadership, and review empirical studies of distributed leadership in action. Their study comprised a review of research and writing from January 1996 to July 2002 that related to distributed leadership and related conceptualizations of leadership. An extensive search of literature led the authors to concentrate on the concepts of delegated, democratic, dispersed and distributed leadership. The authors’ key findings are described below:

• Little agreement was found as to the meaning of distributed leadership, however, a number of different interpretations of leadership were found to share some common characteristics.
• Very few empirical studies of distributed leadership in action existed, and no empirical data on the effectiveness of distributed leadership, in terms of pupil or student achievement, were found.
• The authors recommend thinking about distributed leadership in terms of challenging our current assumptions about the nature of leadership and the community within which it occurs rather than as another technique or practice of leadership.

The authors also identified the characteristics that they believed linked the various views of leadership they studied, described several aspects that they believed should be considered when thinking about distributed leadership, and identified some implications of their study for professional development and research.

Based on their review of the literature, the authors state that distributed leadership has the following characteristics:

• It is “an emergent property of a group or network of individuals”, in which group members “pool their expertise”. This “concerted action” of people working together takes place within a pattern of interpersonal relationships, and brings about a situation in which the amount of energy created is greater than the sum of the individual actions. Distributed leadership, then, is group activity that works through and within relationships, rather than individual action. It emerges from a variety of sources depending on the issue and who has the relevant expertise or creativity.
• It involves many more people than might traditionally be assumed, beyond those with formal senior roles to include not only the teaching staff but also the student body and members of the community. The authors stated that “drawing many people into the potential leadership group makes it possible for initiatives to be developed [throughout] the organization, and then adopted, adapted and improved by others in a culture of support and trust.”

In addition to the summary report, see the full report at http://www.ncsl.org.uk/media-7b5-67-distributed-leadership-literature-review.pdf.

Hammonds, Bruce. “Time For Real Leadership: Leadership By Ideas.” Education Today
http://leading-learning.blogspot.com/2008/04/time-for-real-leadership.html

In his brief article, Hammonds describes the changing educational environment, an environment in which all students’ talents, interests, and passions can be developed in a more personalized educational environment. He argues that these personalized learning environments demand the rejection of the old “top down technocratic approaches” in favor of systems in which creativity, energy, and ideas are shared freely amongst different levels and areas of leadership. He identifies it as a move away from a system of competitive stand-alone leaders and a move towards a system of distributed leadership. Hammonds identifies several essential leadership characteristics. He believes leaders must have the ability to:

• provide direction through shared purpose (not personality), which in turn creates consensus, commitment and collegiality;
• adapt new ideas in accordance with the school’s vision;
• make explicit what is urgent and important to the community thereby reducing misunderstanding and improving decision-making;
• initiate and sustain conversations;
• recognize those who show initiative or appropriate behavior as well as build on the strength and ideas of others;
• strive towards improvement, asking the most of everyone in an environment of openness, respect, and trust;
• hold people accountable to agreed upon commitments; and
• encourage leadership in all.

Leithwood, Jantzi, Earl, Watson, Levin, & Fullan. “Strategic Leadership For Large-Scale Reform: the Case of England’s National Literacy and Numeracy Strategy.” School Leadership & Management. Vol. 24, No.1. February 2004. pp. 57-79.
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.ae.talonline.ca/ehost/pdf?vid=8&hid=104&sid=6ddadba7-3ec7-4eda-8594-81eefd5cb339%40sessionmgr102

This article, written by a group of Canadian professors, describes the results of a four-year study that evaluated England’s National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies. The study focuses on the leadership required to bring about large-scale reform. The authors claim that the study gives clear evidence for three points they see as challenging the standard literature on leadership.

1. Transformational leadership has greater instrumental value in bringing about large-scale reform than managerial or transactional forms of leadership.
2. Transformational practices are more effective and influential when distributed throughout an organization, rather than provided by individuals (as consistent with “great man leadership theories”).
3. Distributed leadership is not inherently superior to vertical or hierarchical leadership, rather both must be provided in a coordinated way.

The authors describe leadership as a process of influence. They draw upon a definition first formed by Gary Yukl (1994): “[leadership is]…the interpretation of events for followers, the choice of objectives for the group organization, the organization of work activities to accomplish objectives, the motivation of followers to achieve the objectives, the maintenance of cooperative relationships and teamwork, and the enlistment of support and cooperation from people outside the group or organization.”

The authors also present a detailed analysis of “distributive leadership”. They explain that distributive leadership refers to the model of leadership wherein initiatives and practices used to influence members of the organization are exercised by more than a single person. Leadership influence, they continue, could arise from “non-person sources” leading to a view of leaderships as an “organization-wide phenomenon.”

The authors also discuss three categories of transformational leadership: 1) setting directions, 2) redesigning the organization, and 3) developing people. The authors consider these categories as necessary components of successful reformative leadership.

Finally, the authors explain how distributed leadership needs to be coupled with a strategic form of vertical leadership. They argue that the benefits claimed for distributed leadership are substantial, but there is not much empirical evidence to support all of the benefits. They offer several examples and statistics to reinforce their position that even within distributed leadership there needs to be an individual or group of individuals coordinating and spearheading the way towards change.

McGuire, Gary.; “Shared Leadership, Shared Results.” Leadership; Association of California School Administrators; January/February 2008

In this article McGuire details his experience as a school principal shifting the practice in his school towards distributed leadership. He describes his transition as a move from evaluating his colleagues’ duties to becoming a partner on the “teaching team.” He states, “I gave up my power and authority as the principal in order to become an equal leader in the effort to improve our instruction and our students’ achievement.” He notes that the distribution of leadership resulted in growth in areas of dialogue and collegiality, which in turn, increased effectiveness in areas such as innovation, commitment, collaboration and group ownership. He also notes that the new-found collegiality made him more approachable to his colleagues.

McGuire references a book by Robert Marzano, titled Classroom Instruction that Works (2005); he paraphrases Marzano as follows: “there are 21 responsibilities that characterize school leadership. His findings reveal that there is nobody who can possibly fulfill all 21 of these responsibilities, but effective school leaders must develop a leadership team that can carry out at least 12 of the responsibilities if a school is to effectively raise student achievement. Clearly, leaders must develop other leaders around them to help them carry the load. No one can do it all alone. …The fact is effective leaders must delegate. They must share leadership responsibilities. That means giving away some authority and some power. That means putting trust in others. That means becoming an equal member of the team, a peer among peers, a leader among leaders.”

See also Marzano Robert. Waters, Timothy. McNulty, Brian. School Leadership that Works: From Research to Results. Virginia: Association for Supervision & Curriculum, 2005. http://edrev.asu.edu/reviews/rev573.htm

Additional 2008 articles from the Leadership magazine can be found online at http://www.acsa.org/FunctionalMenuCategories/Media
/LeadershipMagazine/2008.aspx.

Robinson and Timperley. “The Leadership of the Improvement of Teaching and Learning: Lessons From Initiatives With Positive Outcomes for Students.” Australian Journal of Education. Vol. 51, Iss.3, November 2007. pp247-262.
http://ae.talonline.ca.ezproxy.ae.talonline.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=27275424&site=ehost-live

In this article, the authors describe the findings of a study that examined the role of leadership in promoting teacher learning that was effective in improving academic and nonacademic outcomes. Five key dimensions of leadership for improvement were identified:

1. Providing educational direction
2. Ensuring strategic alignment
3. Creating a community that learns how to improve student success
4. Engaging in constructive talk about problems
5. Selecting and developing tools

Following a description of each of these dimensions, the authors describe the conditions of leadership that give rise to initiatives of effective teacher learning, namely distributed forms of leadership. The authors stated: “The distributed nature of the leadership was evident with respect to who exercised leadership and how it was practiced. Rather than portrayals of the qualities and activities of a pre-selected group of formal school leaders, these studies provided more subtle and embedded descriptions of a range of leadership practices that were carried out by staff who may or may not have held formal leadership positions.” In addition, the authors mention that a significant portion of each initiative was carried out through partnerships with others outside of the school, including university-based researchers, facilitators, and private professional developers.

Russell, Jill Frymier, Ph.D. Enthusiastic Educational Leadership. Florida Journal of Educational Administration & Policy: Vol. 1. Iss. 2., 2008

In this article, Russell discusses the findings of a qualitative research study conducted at elementary, secondary, and post-secondary levels. The study explores the relationship between enthusiasm, engagement, enjoyment, and efficacy at the level of educational leadership. Russell identifies three factors essential to balancing this relationship.

1. Educational leaders should seek to achieve progress through collaboration;
2. Educational leaders should exhibit a strong work ethic; and
3. Educational leaders should make explicit how organizational missions align with personal missions.

Russell discusses what is meant by collaborative leadership. “Collaborative leadership,” she explains, refers to a style of leadership in which cooperation and mutual participation are emphasized. She contrasts this approach to the more traditional top-down model of “command and control.” She argues that collaborative leadership pulls people together, encouraging teamwork, joint problem solving, and group planning as well as a sharing of vision, accountability, and ownership. The author suggests that this model of leadership results in higher levels of engagement and enjoyment, which in turn results in increased levels of enthusiasm and efficacy. The author identifies collaborative learning as key to improving the attitude of the educational workplace, maximizing different people’s strengths, and helping to bring about policy change and educational strides forward.

Weast, Jerry D. “Creating Shared Leadership that Works.” The School Administrator. August 2008 http://www.aasa.org/publications/saarticledetail.cfm?ItemNumber=10617&snItemNumber=&tnItemNumber=

In this article, Weast, a superintendent from Maryland, discusses the need for and value of collaborative leadership in educational communities. He argues for a model of shared leadership and shared responsibility to meet new demands related to growing global-competition, increasing diversity, and rapid technological change. He asserts, “Leadership at its core is about collaboration – establishing a culture where the collective wisdom of the team strengthens student learning in every classroom and creates an environment where we can take on the tough issues to ensure every child gets the best possible education.” The author adds, “By building a trusting environment, you can have the honest and difficult discussions we must have…”

Weast also refers to the Professional Learning Communities Institute (see http://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/departments/development/teams/
plci/index.shtm), a Maryland-based organization designed to offer professional guidance and support in helping to bring about this leadership transformation. The Institute recommends resources and avenues of training for educators to help establish collaborative learning communities.

College of Alberta School Superintendents – Moving and Improving: Building System Leadership Capacity Initiative
http://www.cass.ab.ca/moving_and_improving

The Moving and Improving: Building System Leadership Capacity Initiative is a year-long project (2008-09) focused on improving student learning and building leadership capacity through reflective inquiry, collaboration and team-based continuous improvement. Through this CASS project, school system leaders will collaborate to develop and pilot an Alberta framework in ten school jurisdictions. The Framework for Action (Draft 3 is available for review and feedback at http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6062272/i/Moving/Framework_Draft_3.pdf) will identify the qualities of high performing school jurisdictions (see http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6062272/i//Moving/Leadership_Dimensions_Characteristic.pdf), synthesizing the best available research evidence, as well as experiences from practicing provincial leaders. Ultimately, the initiative will help every school and school jurisdiction engage in thoughtful dialogue about how to best use information and data to improve student learning.

In addition to regular meetings by the ten pilot groups during the 2008-09 school year, a Leadership Academy is planned for June 2009 to share information, combine the research and affirm improvement practices.

This initiative is founded on Fullan’s concept of sustained turnaround leadership (Fullan, M. Turnaround Leadership, 2006, p44-45) where leaders’ very actions change the systems they work in. Turnaround leaders:

• tap into people's dignity and sense of respect;
• ensure that the best people are working on the problem;
• recognize that all successful strategies are socially-based and action-oriented;
• change by doing rather than by elaborate planning;
• assume that lack of capacity is the initial problem and then work on it continuously;
• stay the course through continuity of good direction by leveraging leadership;
• build internal accountability lined to external accountability;
• establish conditions for the evolution of positive pressure; and
• build public confidence.

Contemporary School Leadership – An ASCD PDOnline Course http://shop.ascd.org/productdisplay.cfm?productid=PD04OC38

This online course, offered by Association for School Curriculum Development, is directed at school leaders who find they are struggling with the changing character and demands of their jobs. The course provides contemporary research and strategies to help leaders grapple with today’s leadership challenges. The six lesson course addresses the following issues:

• defining the role and character of instructional leadership;
• using data to solve problems and work towards continuous progress;
• managing complex changes and identifying helpful models for change in business and corporate examples;
• exploring strategies of distributive leadership;
• establishing the importance and role of consulting, collaboration, coaching, and mentoring in supporting learning communities; and
• analyzing how to determine the key focus and identifying the necessary support for professional development.

A sample lesson can be viewed at http://pdonline.ascd.org/pd_demo/lesson.cfm?SID=58. The course costs $99USD.

Danielson, Charlotte. Teacher Leadership That Strengthens Professional Practice. ebook:
http://shop.ascd.org/productdisplay.cfm?productid=105048E4

This electronic book, aimed at both administrators and teachers, presents a framework for developing and supporting highly committed teacher leaders. The book highlights several key themes:

• the difference between excellent teachers and excellent teacher leaders;
• the skills and characteristics of successful teacher leaders;
• the commitment of teacher leaders to the goals and direction of the school;
• the environment of the school oriented in such a way so as to encourage teacher leadership; and
• the interaction of teacher leaders with the larger community outside of the school.

Stanford Educational Leadership Institute
http://seli.stanford.edu/

Composed and run as a joint partnership between the Graduate School of Business and the School of Education, the Stanford Educational Leadership Institute (SELI) seeks to revolutionize leadership in both fields. The institute offers research, training, and support to leaders in the public sector. It draws upon thought leadership, and proven successful curricula, intensive and sustained research. It aims to help leaders guide high-performing organizations with the following results in mind:

• improving student achievement;
• increasing teacher and employee performance; and
• maximizing leadership potential and resources for bringing about development and change.

Currently SELI is conducting research on principal pre-service and in-service professional development programs which focuses on the following three areas:

• the characteristics of an effective training program;
• the current financial structure behind professional development; and
• the enablers of effective training programs, on the institutional, organizational, and financial levels.

SELI also offers two programs for developing leadership skills and knowledge. The first program, designed for principals, was scheduled to launch in 2007. The second, called the “Leadership Study Tours,” works in cooperation with the School Redesign Network (SRN), to offer leaders first-hand experience and tours of “highly effective small schools.” SELI also provides consulting services as well as booking for more general speaking engagements.